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Infancy Introduction

Child Development & Parenting: Infants (0-2)

This topic center covers parenting and child development of infant children (ages 0-2). For a complete review of the theories of child development upon which this article is based, please visit our Child and Adolescent Development topic center. For coverage of child development and parenting topics applicable to preschool children (early childhood aged 3 to 7 please visit our Early Childhood Parenting and Child Development topic center. For information on parenting and child development of middle childhood children (ages 8 to 11), please visit our Middle Childhood Parenting and Development center and Child Development Theory: Middle Childhood center. For information on parenting adolescents (ages 12-24), please visit our Adolescence Child Development and Parenting and Child Development Theory: Adolescence topic center.

 

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Fast Facts: Learn! Fast!

What physical development takes place in infants?

  • Physical development occurs in several important ways, including children growing in size and weight, but also becoming better able to move themselves around and to manipulate objects, and having senses that become more refined over time.
  • Babies can feel and respond to pain and touch from birth, and this is an important first connection between infants and caregivers.
  • Babies can hear at birth, and doctors can test infants for hearing problems right after birth. As infants grow, their mental ability to process and use information they hear improves.
  • Unlike their abilities to smell or hear, babies are not able to see as well as adults do. However by age 2-3 months they have the ability to see a full range of colors and can focus on objects just like adults.
  • Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various tasks, a process better known as motor development.
  • One way babies learn to use their bodies is by learning to achieve large physical tasks, or gross motor skills, such as crawling and walking.
  • Fine motor skills develop alongside gross motor skills. Beyond just learning how to use and manipulate their bodies in large movements, babies are learning how to use their hands and how to coordinate smaller movements with their senses, such as sight.
  • Babies grow at an amazing rate in the first months and years of life as they rapidly reproduce cells and grow in length and weight.
  • In the first 2 years, babies grow to almost half their adult height and can quadruple their birth weight, and their bodily proportions also change.

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What cognitive development takes place in infants?

  • Babies are not only growing physically during the first 2 years of life, but also cognitively (mentally).
  • Every day while they interact with and learn about their environment they are creating new connections and pathways between nerve cells both within their brains, and between their brains and bodies.
  • A major development during this period (usually around 8-12 months) is that of object permanence, the understanding that something still exists even if it can't be seen.
  • As infants' brains continue to develop, infants also develop the ability to communicate; to comprehend and produce spoken language.
  • Babies learn language by taking in information through their senses of hearing and sight as they learn to process the meanings behind those sights and sounds.
  • Babies' and young children's language development is strongly influenced by the language they hear spoken around them and to them.
  • Research has shown that young children are better able to learn multiple languages or languages other than their family's primary language because their growing brains enable them to learn a wide variety of meanings, words, and language structures.

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What emotional/social development takes place in infants?

  • Babies can feel interest, distress, disgust, and happiness from birth, and can communicate these through facial expressions and body posture.
  • Infants begin showing a spontaneous "social smile" around age 2 to 3 months, and begin to laugh spontaneously around age 4 months.
  • Between ages 2 and 6 months, infants express other feelings such as anger, sadness, surprise, and fear.
  • Between ages 5 and 6 months, babies begin to exhibit stranger anxiety where they do not like it when other people hold or play with them, and will show this discomfort visibly.
  • Around age 12 months, babies become aware of not only other peoples' expressions but also their actual emotional states, especially distress.
  • Between the ages of 13 and 18 months, separation anxiety may subside as object permanence develops, and they understand their caretaker isn't gone even when they can't see them.
  • By age 2, toddlers can show a wide range of emotions and are becoming better at regulating and coping with their emotions.
  • Another important aspect of emotional development, temperament, has to do with babies' general emotional and social state.
  • Temperament refers to babies' innate personality; the general pattern of how babies will react to and interact with their environment which is present from birth.
  • Closely related to infants' emotional development is their social development; it's through relationships with caregivers and other people that children learn how to apply and use their emotions, expressions, and emotional understanding.

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What sexuality and body awareness takes place in infants?

  • While many people believe that sexual development does not become an important issue until puberty and adolescence, children actually begin showing sexual behavior and interest in their sexual functioning from infancy.
  • Babies are continually exploring their own bodies in order to learn about them.
  • They want to understand what they look like and how parts work and this will include investigating their genitals or walking around naked.
  • Because such behavior is a normal and natural development of their sexual, gender, and personal identity, caregivers should avoid chastising young children or labeling these kinds of exploratory actions as "bad" or "dirty."
  • Instead, caregivers should set and enforce proper limits on such behavior, allowing toddlers and young children to explore themselves at home in private and discouraging them from doing these behaviors in public.
  • Distracting children, and guiding them towards more socially appropriate behavior are good ways to get children to refocus without shaming them in the process.

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How can I successfully parent my infant?

  • Coming home from the hospital for the first time with a tiny person who depends entirely on you for all his needs can be a daunting prospect and it's normal to feel a mixture of excitement, joy, and love along with some anxiety, fear, and a little trepidation.
  • It's important to support the baby\'s head and neck in order to stabilize the entire body, and holding infants securely also communicates unconditional love that helps to form the parent-child bond.
  • Parents and caregivers should facilitate movement and growth by giving babies safe environments to play and to explore on their own.
  • Infants need food and water to survive, to grow, and to thrive.
  • Babies take in nutrients and fluids, and their bodies break them down, keep what they need, and get rid of the waste products through urination and fecal elimination. Preparation is the key to smooth diaper changes for everyone involved.
  • Caregivers can help their baby learn how to sleep in more adult-like patterns and how to soothe themselves to sleep. While some babies easily adapt to more mature sleep cycles, other babies may take much more effort and patience to do so.
  • Babies need to be bathed regularly and there are different ways to wash babies, according to their age, motor abilities, and preferences.
  • Babies cry because they're hungry, tired, sick, hot, cold, in pain, bored, over stimulated, want affection, or are uncomfortable in some way and parents can often learn to differentiate their baby's cries.
  • At a normal well-baby visit, parents should expect doctors to measure and weigh the baby and to discuss the baby's feeding and elimination, sleep habits, growth, development, and general well-being.
  • Another important factor in maintaining infant health is building up their immune system, or their ability to fight off serious infections, through immunizations.
  • Common baby medical concerns include teething, colic, coughs and colds, fever, and diarrhea and vomiting. 
  • Babies need to be loved and nurtured from birth to create a trusting bond between them and the adults who care for them, and to help create trust and interest in the world at large, which enables them to grow and to learn.
  • Another way to help babies begin to learn social skills, stay safe, and begin to learn values and morals is to provide appropriate discipline from birth.
  • Caregivers need to provide their babies with a safe environment in which to live and to grow.

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How can I keep my infant safe?

  • Caregivers can help babies to safely explore their world by attending to and fixing aspects of babies' environments that may be dangerous for them.
  • Caregivers need to baby-proof not only a baby's primary home, but also the car that the baby will be transported in, and the community of other homes and environments that the baby may visit and explore.
  • Caregivers can ensure a good night's sleep for their babies and themselves by following these tips to create a safe sleeping space for infants and toddlers.
  • Caregivers can follow some simple guidelines to keep diaper changing safe.
  • With a few precautionary measures, the family kitchen can be the center of a rich and busy family life.
  • The bathroom can become a safe and pleasant place for bath time and other baby fun times if important precautions are observed.
  • There are several things that caregivers can do to reduce the possibility that their children will be harmed in a fire-related situation.
  • If a family is looking to bring a pet into the home (and no pet is presently in the home), they should consider waiting until their child is at least five years old.
  • Concerned parents can also think about ways to make car outings occur as safely as possible.
  • Backyard play areas and other segments of the home property need to be monitored and outfitted for safety.
  • A solid emergency plan should be developed for handling worst-case scenarios, should they ever come to pass.

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How can I stimulate my infant and enrich their life?

  • It is important to think about infant stimulation or enrichment (activities that arouse or stimulate your baby's sense of sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell).
  • This stimulation can help foster physical, social, emotional, brain, and nervous system development.
  • You don't have to worry excessively about making sure your baby masters a rigid set of exercises or activities in the first months of life, but by being aware of the different areas of child development, you can help enrich your child's experiences and growth.
  • The foremost way you provide encouragement to children is through showing them love and nurturing.
  • Another way you can show your baby love and affection is through providing them with toys, songs and games as learning tools.
  • From birth, you can help your baby to develop physically by giving him or her activities that help build upper body and neck strength.
  • To help very young infants develop language and other cognitive skills, you can talk to your baby.
  • Between ages six to twelve months, you can continue to encourage physical growth and motor skill development through interactive games and activities.
  • For more social and emotional development, you can play light chasing and surprising games by crawling around the living room or other space.
  • Another way to help build sociability is to expose babies to new social situations.
  • By twelve months, toddlers are generally beginning to master walking on their own and caregivers can begin to build on that skill.
  • By 18-24 months, children often enjoy simple pretend play.

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News Articles

  • Exposure to Iodine in the NICU May Affect Infant Thyroid Function

    Exposure to iodine in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) may increase a baby's risk for loss of thyroid function, a new study suggests. More...

  • Zika May Have Damaged More Infants' Brains Than Expected

    It's a virus some might not even remember, but babies born to mothers infected with Zika who appeared normal at birth still experienced neurological or developmental problems, new research suggests. More...

  • COVID-19 Typically Mild for Babies: Study

    Most babies with COVID-19 have mild illness, with fever being the main symptom, according to a small study. More...

  • Baby's Sleep Issues Could Sometimes Signal Autism: Study

    Sleep problems in baby's first year may affect growth of the hippocampus and may also precede an autism diagnosis, researchers say. More...

  • Breast Milk May Help Shield Infants From Dangerous Viruses

    New mothers have long been told that breast milk is best for their baby, and now there's more evidence that breastfeeding helps protect babies against potentially harmful viruses. More...

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      Letting a baby watch a smartphone, tablet or TV at 12 months increases the odds the child will develop autism-like symptoms during the next year, new research suggests. More...

    • Hugs More Calming for Baby When Given by Mom or Dad

      All hugs are not created equal -- and babies as young as 4 months are proof. More...

    • Too Much 'Screen Time' Could Slow Your Toddler's Language Skills: Study

      Everyone is glued to some sort of media these days, but for young kids, that screen time could delay or limit their language skills, a new research review suggests. More...

    • Babies Are Spared Severe COVID-19 Symptoms

      Infants can become infected with the new coronavirus, but their bouts with COVID-19 appear to be milder than those of older folks and people with chronic health problems, experts say. More...

    • Preemies' Impaired Immune Systems Quickly Catch Up: Study

      Premature infants' immune systems develop at a rate similar to full-term infants, a new study finds. More...

    • Could Dad-to-Be's Health Affect His Newborn's Health?

      The health of both mom and dad are key to a healthy pregnancy and birth, new research finds. More...

    • Mom's Purse May Hold Hidden Dangers for Kids

      Busy moms and dads routinely stuff their purses and bags with every item their family might need for the day. But that creates a minefield of choking and poisoning hazards for babies and toddlers, pediatricians warn. More...

    • Babies' Exposure to Household Cleaning Products Tied to Later Asthma Risk

      A key to your baby's asthma risk may be as close as your laundry room. More...

    • Parents, Grandparents to Blame for Many Child Drug Poisonings, CDC Warns

      If you are sometimes less than careful with your prescription medications and have young kids at home, a new study shows how easily tragedies can occur. More...

    • Baby in Your Room, Not in Your Bed: Good Advice, but Are Parents Listening?

      Parents have long been told that babies should sleep in their own crib to reduce the risk of sudden unexpected infant death (SUID), yet nearly 1 in 5 infant are still sleeping in their parent's bed, a new study finds. More...

    • Beyond Baby Talk: Helping Early Language

      Teaching parents how to talk to their babies could help boost their children's language development, researchers say. More...

    • Health Tip: Basics of Newborn Care

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    • 'Kangaroo Care' Reduces Infant Deaths

      Low birth weight babies stand a better chance of surviving when their mothers hold them close throughout the day, a new study finds. More...

    • Out-of-Pocket Medical Costs Average $4,500 for Many New U.S. Parents

      If you're an expectant parent, you know you're in for some sleepless nights once the baby comes. What you might not expect is almost $5,000 in medical costs. More...

    • How Are Your Newborn's Ears Working? Early Hearing Test Is a Must

      When you have a baby, it seems like you visit the doctor all the time for checks on weight and length and to get needed vaccinations. But are you as aware of the guidelines regarding hearing checks for your little one? More...

    • Opioid-Addicted Babies Cost U.S. More Than $500 Million Annually

      Babies born addicted to opioids cost the U.S. health care system more than half a billion dollars a year, a new study finds. More...

    • Indoor Pollutants May Raise Allergy Risk in Toddlers

      Toddlers have an increased risk of allergies if they are exposed to multiple indoor pollutants in their first years of life, a new study finds. More...

    • Eye Injuries From Household Cleaners Drop, But Kids Remain at Risk

      Having little ones visit for the holidays? Be sure to stow household cleaners safely out of their reach. More...

    • Is Timing Everything for SIDS Risk?

      New research suggests that a baby's age may offer clues to sudden unexplained infant death (SUID) -- formerly known as SIDS. More...

    • Another Possible Effect of Climate Change: More Preemie Babies

      Rising temperatures might help trigger premature birth, a new study finds, suggesting that global warming could deliver more "preemie" babies. More...

    • Dramatic Drop Seen in Kids Choking to Death on Household Objects

      Efforts to reduce choking deaths among young children seem to have paid off: A new report finds the number of kids dying from choking on household objects has plummeted 75% since 1968. More...

    • Smallest Tots Spending Too Much Time on Screens

      Even infants are now watching screens, and as they grow so does the time they spend doing it, two new studies show. More...

    • Opioid Exposure in Womb Alters the Infant Brain

      Exposure to opioids in the womb may affect an area of the newborn brain that regulates emotions, a new study shows. More...

    • Infants May Not Be as Immune to Measles as Thought

      A surprising new study upends the notion that antibodies passed from mother to fetus protect infants from measles for as much as a year. More...

    • Umbilical Cord 'Milking' Procedure Dangerous for Preemies: Study

      Squeezing the last drops of blood from the umbilical cord has been touted to help preterm babies get more of the nutrients they need, but it may be dangerous, a new study finds. More...

    • Health Tip: Changing Diapers 101

      Changing your baby's diaper may seem scary, but don't worry. Within a few weeks, you can be an expert. More...

    • America's Sweet Tooth Starts From Infancy

      Bad eating habits begin at a young age in American children, a new study finds. More...

    • Abnormal Gut Microbiome May Stunt Preemies' Growth

      The gut microbiome of premature infants in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) may hinder their future growth, new research shows. More...

    • Health Tip: Do's and Don'ts of Homemade Baby Formula

      Although homemade formulas may seem healthy or inexpensive, they may not meet your baby's nutritional needs. More...

    • Too Much Screen Time May Be Stunting Toddlers' Brains

      Toddlers who spend loads of time looking at tablets, smartphones or TVs may be changing their brains, and not for the better. More...

    • High-Tech Pacifier Might Monitor Baby's Blood Sugar

      Parents of babies with type 1 diabetes have to prick their child's skin multiple times a day to check their blood sugar. But researchers may have developed a much easier way to check -- a sugar-sensing pacifier. More...

    • Many Women Are Sharing Breast Milk, and That Has Health Experts Worried

      "Informal" sharing of breast milk may be more common than thought, with too many parents mistakenly thinking it's risk-free, new research suggests. More...

    • Good News for Parents: Many Preemie Babies Grow Up Fine

      Having a premature baby can be frightening for parents, but new research delivers a calming finding: Many premature babies end up as healthy adults without major illnesses. More...

    • Many Parents Not Following Safe-Sleep Advice for Babies

      Many U.S. parents are not heeding recommendations on how to put their babies to sleep safely, a new government study finds. More...

    • Health Tip: Baby's First Tooth

      For most babies, the two front teeth appear first, says the American Academy of Pediatrics. More...

    • Breast Milk Combats Growth of Bad Bacteria

      Researchers say they have identified a compound in breast milk that combats the growth of infection-causing bacteria in infants. More...

    • Health Tip: Addressing Your Child's Biting Habit

      From wanting attention to communicating their feelings, children bite for a variety of reasons, says the National Association for the Education of Young Children. More...

    • Paid Family Leave Helps Keep Babies' Vaccines on Track: Study

      Children whose parents take paid family leave when they're born are more likely to get vaccinated at the recommended ages, a new study finds. More...

    • Making the Most of Your Baby's First 3 Years

      Experts agree that the first three years of a baby's life are a unique time of fast development. More...

    • New Healthy Drinks Guidelines for Kids: Skip the Soy, Avoid Sugars

      Four of America's biggest health organizations are banding together to urge parents to better monitor the drinks their young kids sip each day. More...

    • Treatment for Very-Preterm Infants May Lead to Antibiotic Resistance

      A new study finds long-term antibiotic treatment puts preterm infants at risk of developing multidrug-resistant gut bacteria, which could affect their health later in life. More...

    • Secrets to Soothing a Cranky Baby Safely

      Trying to calm a cranky baby can be stressful for parents, but the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has an important caution about what not to do. More...

    • Kids in Hot Cars: How to Prevent Heatstroke Deaths

      Hot car deaths set a U.S. record last year, with 53 children dead because they were left behind or got trapped inside an overheated vehicle, according to the National Safety Council. So far this year the tally is 35. More...

    • Every Sudden Infant Death Deserves a Closer Look: Report

      "It is important that we correctly identify deaths that occurred from abuse or neglect, because when they are missed, it leaves other children at risk," report co-author Dr. Erich Batra said in an AAP news release. More...

    • How to Protect Your Baby Against Eczema

      Using a rich moisturizer, even an inexpensive one like petroleum jelly, is one part of keeping eczema under control. Now researchers have found that this skin care step can keep many newborns at risk for the condition from developing it. More...

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