Skip Navigation Link
secslider

An Overview of Child Development Theories

Child & Adolescent Development: Overview

   
This topic center provides a review of theories of child development. For information on parenting and child development of infants aged 0 to 2, please visit our Infant Parenting and Child Development topic center. For information on parenting and child development of preschool children (early childhood aged 3 to 7, please visit our Early Childhood Parenting and Child Development topic center. For information on parenting and child development of middle childhood children (ages 8 to 11), please visit our Middle Childhood Parenting and Development center. For information on parenting adolescents (ages 12-24), please visit our Child Development Theory: Adolescence topic center and Parenting and Child Development Theory: Adolescen...More

Fast Facts: Learn! Fast!

What are the main child development areas?

  • There are four main areas or channels in which children grow: physical, psychological and cognitive, social and emotional, and sexuality and gender identity.
  • Children's bodies grow in height and weight over the years and change appearance during puberty.
  • Children also develop certain physical abilities during their progression towards adulthood, including crawling, walking, running and (possibly) writing or shooting a basketball.
  • Children develop psychologically and cognitively as their brains absorb more information and they learn how to use that information.
  • Children grow socially and emotionally and they learn how to interact, play, work, and live with other people such as family, friends, teachers, and employers.
  • They learn how to understand both their own feelings and others' emotions and ways of dealing with strong emotions.
  • Children must develop a sense of self-esteem as they go through the long process of figuring out what shape their identity, or who they are, will take.
  • They also develop a sense of morality as they learn the difference between right and wrong.
  • Finally, children have to develop sexually and form a gender identity.
  • Early on, children learn how their bodies work and look and what it means to be a boy or a girl; they learn how boys and girls are different.
  • As they grow older and enter adolescence and puberty, they continue to learn how their bodies work sexually and how to responsibly handle their sexuality so as to balance their sexual desires and appropriate behavior.

For more information

What is Sigmund Freud's theory of child development?

  • Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults.
  • Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
  • In Freud's view, each stage focused on sexual activity and the pleasure received from a particular area of the body.
  • In the oral phase, children are focused on the pleasures that they receive from sucking and biting with their mouth.
  • In the Anal phase, this focus shifts to the anus as they begin toilet training and attempt to control their bowels.
  • In the Phallic stage, the focus moves to genital stimulation and the sexual identification that comes with having or not having a penis.
  • Another part of Freud's theory focused on identifying the parts of consciousness.
  • Freud thought that all babies are initially dominated by unconscious, instinctual and selfish urges for immediate gratification which he labeled the Id.
  • As babies attempt and fail to get all their whims met, they develop a more realistic appreciation of what is realistic and possible, which Freud called the "Ego".
  • Over time, babies also learn about and come to internalize and represent their parents' values and rules, which he called the "Super-Ego."
  • The Super-Ego is the basis for the the child's conscience that struggles with the concepts of right and wrong and works with the Ego to control the immediate gratification urges of the Id.
  • By today's rigorous scientific standards, Freud's psychosexual theory is not considered to be very accurate, but it is still important and influential today because it was the first stage development theory that gained real attention, and many other theorists used it as a starting place.

For more information

What is Erik Erikson's theory of child development?

  • Erik Erikson (1902-1994) used Freud's work as a starting place to develop a theory about human stage development from birth to death.
  • Erikson focused on how peoples\' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop abilities and beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied members of society.
  • Because Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and mentally with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people, it's called a 'psychosocial' theory.
  • Erikson's stages are, in chronological order in which they unfold: trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; industry versus inferiority; identity versus identity confusion; intimacy versus isolation; generativity versus stagnation; and integrity versus despair.
  • Each stage is associated with a time of life and a general age span.
  • For each stage, Erikson's theory explains what types of stimulation children need to master that stage and become productive and well-adjusted members of society and explains the types of problems and developmental delays that can result when this stimulation does not occur.

For more information

What is Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of child development?

  • Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) described three stages of moral development which described the process through which people learn to discriminate right from wrong and to develop increasingly sophisticated appreciations of morality.
  • Kohlberg believed that his stages were cumulative and that each built off understanding and abilities gained in prior stages.
  • According to Kohlberg, moral development is a lifelong task, and many people fail to develop the more advanced stages of moral understanding.
  • Kohlberg's first 'preconventional' level describes children whose understanding of morality is essentially only driven by consequences.
  • Second stage 'conventional' morality describes people who act in moral ways because they believe that following the rules is the best way to promote good personal relationships and a healthy community.
  • The final 'postconventional' level describes people who instead of just following rules without questioning them, determine what is moral based on a set of values or beliefs they think are right all the time.

For more information

What is Jean Piaget's theory of child development?

  • Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1990), created a cognitive-developmental stage theory that described how children's ways of thinking developed as they interacted with the world around them.
  • Piaget's theory has four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
  • During the sensorimotor stage, which often lasts from birth to age two, children are just beginning to learn how to learn. The major tasks occurring during this period involve children figuring out how to make use of their bodies, which they do by experiencing everything with their five senses.
  • During the preoperational stage, which often lasts from ages two though seven, children start to use mental symbols to understand and to interact with the world, and they begin to learn language and to engage in pretend play.
  • In the concrete operational stage that follows, lasting from ages seven through eleven, children gain the ability to think logically to solve problems and to organize information they learn.
  • During the formal operational stage, which often lasts from age eleven on, adolescents learn how to think more abstractly to solve problems and to think symbolically (for example, about things that aren't really there concretely in front of them).

For more information

What is Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of child development?

  • Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops.
  • He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.
  • The microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in and includes any immediate relationships or organizations they interacts with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare.
  • The mesosystem describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child.
  • The exosystem level includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members, the neighborhood, etc.
  • The macrosystem is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child, such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc.

For more information


News Articles

  • Many Parents Would Switch Doctors Over Vaccination Policy, Poll Finds

    Forty percent of U.S. parents say they would likely find a new doctor if their child's primary care provider sees families who refuse childhood vaccines, a nationwide poll finds. More...

  • As School Starts, Pack That Lunch With Nutritional Goodies

    Planning for your children's return to school this fall should include thinking about how to pack healthy lunches that they'll enjoy. More...

  • 5 Health Tips to Promote Back-to-School Success

    Healthy kids do better in school -- something parents need to think about as they prepare for a new academic year. More...

  • Pot Poisonings Among Kids, Teens Double After Medical Marijuana Law Passed

    Pot-related poisoning calls involving kids and teens more than doubled in Massachusetts after the state legalized medical marijuana, a new study reports. More...

  • For Kids Born With HIV, Taking Needed Meds Gets Harder With Age: Study

    As they get older, U.S. children born with HIV are less likely to take the medicine they need to fight the AIDS-causing virus, a new study finds. More...

    • 45 More

    • Building a Better Backpack

      A well-organized backpack helps ensure that your child has everything needed for school. Problems start when it becomes overloaded. Lugging around a heavy pack can lead to bad posture, back pain and worse. More...

    • Kids Getting Too Many Opioids After Tonsillectomy

      Amid a U.S. epidemic of opioid abuse, a new study finds that even children are being prescribed powerful opioid painkillers after having their tonsils removed. More...

    • Explaining, Easing the Horror of Mass Shootings for Your Kids

      But for children, and especially very young children, they can be a new and frightening phenomenon. Child psychiatrist Dr. Victor Fornari said there are ways parents can help minimize the psychological toll on their kids. More...

    • For Kids With Asthma, Allergies, New School Year Can Bring Flare-Ups

      As kids head back to school, it's important for parents to keep potential asthma and allergy challenges in mind. More...

    • Another Video Game Risk to Watch Out For

      Also look for mention of "interactive elements." These are additional game features, such as a player's ability to interact with other players, and purchase goods and services through the game or app. More...

    • Older Parents May Have Better Behaved Kids

      The study found that kids with at least one older parent were less likely to be defiant rule-breakers or physically aggressive. More...

    • Are Too Many Kids Prescribed Antihistamines?

      Physicians are still more likely to recommend antihistamines for children under age 12 with colds, despite the fact that they provide little known benefit, the researchers from Rutgers University in New Jersey said. More...

    • Childhood Cancer Steals Over 11 Million Years of Healthy Life: Study

      Researchers are closing in on the toll of childhood cancer, finding it stole 11.5 million years of healthy life lost worldwide in 2017. More...

    • Family Home, Football Field Most Dangerous Spots for Kids' Head Injuries

      Falls from beds, uneven floors and playing football are leading causes of nonfatal brain injuries in American kids, new research shows. More...

    • Most Airplanes Not Equipped With First Aid for Kids

      You're on an overseas flight with your young child, who starts complaining of fever and chills. You ask the flight attendant for help, maybe some pain relievers. Will the plane's first aid kit have what your child needs? More...

    • Plastics Chemicals Meant to Replace BPA May Not Be Any Safer for Kids

      Manufacturers have been phasing out the plastics chemical bisphenol A because of evidence it might harm human health. Now a new study raises questions about the chemicals that have replaced it. More...

    • What Happens to the Children When Parents Fight?

      But as it turns out, it's not always the fighting, but rather the way you fight that can have a negative -- or a positive -- effect on your children. More...

    • Health Tip: Giving Medicine Safely to Children

      Giving a child the wrong dose or an inappropriate medication can have serious consequences, says MedlinePlus. More...

    • How to Make Your Child's Hospital Stay Safer, Less Stressful

      More than 3 million kids are hospitalized in the United States every year. Whether it's for a planned test or surgery or an injury or other emergency, knowing how to be involved in your child's care can help you get through what's often a stressful event. More...

    • Obesity May Boost Odds for MS in Kids

      Obese children may be twice as likely to develop multiple sclerosis, a new study suggests. More...

    • Health Tip: Diarrhea in Kids

      Diarrhea typically is not a sign of a serious illness in children, says KidsHealth. More...

    • Opioid Epidemic Doubled Number of U.S. Kids Sent to Foster Care

      The opioid epidemic appears to be literally tearing families apart. More...

    • Swimming Lessons a Must for Everyone

      "This is an essential life skill for children, teens and adults. It's an important part of the 'layers of protection' that families and communities can put in place to protect children and teens around water," Yasuda said in an AAP news release. More...

    • How to Help When Your Child Weighs Too Much

      Seventeen percent of American children and teens are obese and a nearly equal number are overweight, and those who are taunted about their weight tend to gain even more in response, according to a study from the U.S. National Institutes of Health. More...

    • Have Kids, Buy More Produce?

      Could having kids prompt you to eat healthier foods? More...

    • Zika's Damage Continues in Children Infected Before Birth

      New research shows that neurological damage for babies who were exposed to the Zika virus while in the womb continues to unfold years after birth. More...

    • CDC Warns of Start to 'Season' for Mysterious Paralyzing Illness in Kids

      The "season" for a polio-like illness that mainly strikes children is about to begin, so public health officials sent out an early warning to doctors on Tuesday. More...

    • Parent Who Listens Can Help Kids Thrive Despite Trauma

      Heartfelt talks between parent and child are essential to help kids overcome tough times and do their best at school, a new study says. More...

    • Health Tip: Ear Piercing For Kids

      Getting ears pierced must be done with sterile equipment, and parents and kids need to know how to take care of new piercings at home, says Riley Hospital for Children. More...

    • Reacting Against a 'Too Clean' World, Some Parents Go Too Far the Other Way

      "We have to find a way to protect against infectious diseases and harmful microbes, whilst at the same time sustaining exposure to the essential beneficial microbes in our world," explained Sally Bloomfield. More...

    • Survey Urges Grandparents to Lock Down Their Meds When Kids Visit

      Many American seniors fail to secure their medications when grandchildren are around, putting kids at risk of accidental poisoning, an alarming new survey finds. More...

    • California Took on Anti-Vaxxers, and Won

      California's crackdown on childhood vaccination exemptions cut in half the percentage of kindergartners who didn't have their required immunizations, a new study shows. More...

    • Surgery Helps Babies Missing a Heart Chamber Survive, But Problems Linger

      When babies are born without one heart chamber, a special surgery can save their lives. But a new study shows that these patients face lifelong health issues that require special care. More...

    • Abuse, Injury More Likely When Child is With Male Caregiver: Study

      Young children are far more likely to suffer abuse-related injuries when left in the care of a man, versus a woman. And those injuries are likely to be more severe, a new study finds. More...

    • How to Foster Your Child's Imagination

      University of Colorado-Boulder researchers found that kids who spend more time in less-structured activities have better self-directed control and thinking skills than those who spend more time in structured activities. More...

    • Low Vitamin D at Birth Linked to Kids' High Blood Pressure Risk

      Infants and young children with vitamin D deficiency may have a heightened risk for elevated blood pressure later in childhood and in their teens, a new study finds. More...

    • How Do Kids Learn To Turn Off Troublesome Tics?

      Many kids with tics can suppress them, and learning how they do it could lead to ways to help prevent major tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome, researchers say. More...

    • Meet 'Huggable,' the Robot Bear Who's Helping Hospitalized Kids

      He sings, he plays games -- and Huggable the 'social robot' teddy bear could be good medicine for kids in the hospital. More...

    • Will Video Games Make Your Kid Obese? Maybe Not

      To the millions of parents who worry about the extra pounds their child might pile on while playing Xbox all day, rest easy. More...

    • Childhood Brain Tumor Survivors Face More Struggles

      Adult survivors of childhood brain tumors often face intellectual and financial struggles, a new study finds. More...

    • FDA Expands Cystic Fibrosis Treatment Approval to Children Ages 6 to 12

      The indication for a cystic fibrosis treatment, Symdeko (tezacaftor/ivacaftor) tablets, has been expanded to treat children ages 6 years and older with cystic fibrosis and certain genetic mutations, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced today. More...

    • New Drug Combats Leading Cause of Dwarfism

      An experimental drug increased growth rates in children with dwarfism, according to a new study. More...

    • How Do Birth Defects Affect Childhood Cancer Risk?

      Children with birth defects may be at increased risk for childhood cancer, a new study finds. More...

    • FDA Approves Victoza Injection for Children 10 Years and Older

      Victoza (liraglutide) injection is now approved to treat type 2 diabetes in children 10 years and older, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced. More...

    • Health Tip: Preparing Your Child For Sleepaway Camp

      Sleepaway camp can be the experience of a lifetime for your child, says the YMCA. More...

    • Tips for Keeping Your Child Healthy at Camp

      With thousands of kids heading to camp for the summer, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has some tips for keeping them safe and happy. More...

    • A Simple Way to Help Prevent Child Obesity

      Kids who don't drink water take in nearly 100 more calories from sugary drinks every day than those who do, according to a recent Penn State study. More...

    • Type 1 Diabetes Might Affect Young Kids' Brain Development

      Children diagnosed with type 1 diabetes at an early age have slowed growth in brain areas linked to mild cognitive deficits, new research suggests. More...

    • How to Put Limits on Your Family's Screen Time

      While kids get some benefit from using digital and social media, such as early learning and exposure to new ideas, too much of it can negatively affect their health, sleep and eating habits, and even their attention span. More...

    • Chickenpox Vaccine Shields Kids From Shingles, Too

      Shingles isn't usually considered a kids' disease, but children can get this painful condition. Fortunately, the chickenpox vaccine can also protect them against it, a new study finds. More...

Share This

Resources

Topics